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The Greek Period 

By JOHN R. FICKLEN, B. Let. 

Professor of History and Economics, Tulane University of Louisiana 



OUTLINE STUDY OF 

UNIVERSAL HISTORY 

^ — . Issued Monthly by the 

UNIVERSITY ASSOCIATION 

<———"— For the 

SYSTEMATIC STUDY OF HISTORY, 

Conducted by 

MILTON HOPKINS TIPTON, A. M. 




EX-PRESIDENT N. W. CHRISTIAN COLLEGE. 

HEADQUARTERS CHICAGO. 



COURSE OF STUDY, 

1. Ancient Eastern Nations. M. H. Tipton, A. M. 

2. The Greek Period. John R. Ficklin, A.M., B.Iyet., Professor 
of History and Economics, Tulane University of L,ouisiana. 

3. The Roman Period. Thomas Nixon CarvER, A.B., Pli.D,. 
Professor of History and Economics, Oberlin College, Ohio. 

4. First Half Middle Ages. William Craig Wilcox, A.M., 
Professor of Histor}', University of Iowa. 

5. Second Half Middle Ages. GEORGE WELLS KnighT, Ph.D., 
Professor of History, University of Ohio. 

6. Sixteenth Century. George Emory Fellows, Ph.D., Pro- 
fessor of European History, University of Indiana. 

7. Seventeenth Century. Evarts B. GrEEne, Ph.D., Professor 
of History, University of Illinois. 

8. Eighteenth Century. F^rederick C. Hicks, Ph. D., Profes- 
sor of History and Economics, University of Missouri. 

9. Nineteenth Century in Europe. Victor Coffin, B.A., Ph.D., 
Professor of European History, University of Wisconsin. 

10. American History Prior to 181^. Kemp P. BATTLE, ET.D., 
Professor of History, University of North Carolina. 

11. United States History from 181^ to the Civil War. A. C. 
McLaughlin, A.B., LE.B., Professor of American History, Univer- 
sity of Michigan. 

12. The History of the Norsemen. Carl A. Swensson, Ph.D., 
President Bethany College. 

(Copyright, 1895, by W. E. ERXST) 



OUTLINE STUDY OF 

GRECIAN HISTORY 

BY 

JOHN R. FICKLEN, B. LET., 

Professor of History and I^couomics. 
TuLANE University o? La. 

Geography of Greece. 



It is important to study the topograpln^, position and climate of 
Greece before beginning its history ; for all these had great 
influence upon the people. 

Topogyaphy. The surface has great diversity. There are high 
mountains, l^eautiful valleys, and well watered plains. The country, 
which is about the size of Scotland, may be divided into Northern, 
Central and Southern Greece. 

In the Northern division the most famous district is Thessaly, con- 
taining the highest mountain in Greece, Olympus, (9700 feet,) with 
the smaller peaks, Ossa and Pelion, and the Vale of Tempe. Olympus, 
on account of its height, was fabled to be the home of the gods, 
while Ossa and Pelion, so runs the stor}', were piled one upon the 
other by the giants in their vain attempt to overthrow the immortals. 

Central Greece has eleven districts, of which the most famous were 
Phocis, Boeotia and Attica. In Phocis was the renowned oracle of 
Delphi ; in Bceotia the city of Thebes, and in Attica the city of Athens. 
On the isthmus leading to the Peloponnesus, was Corinth, one of the 
richest maritime cities of the ancient world. 

In Southern Greece, called Peloponnesus, the chief districts are 
Arcadia and Laconia. The former, cut off by mountains, was the 
home of a simple pastoral people. In Laconia was Sparta. Athens, 
Thebes and Sparta were the great cities of historic Greece. 

(For further information see Clare's "History of the World," Vol. 2, Chap. 
13 ; Grote's " History of Greece " or the e;ncycope;dia Britannica. ) 

2 



Universal History 3 

Q Position. The position of Greece in the Mediterranean between 
^* Italy and Asia was favorable to commerce. There were many 
excellent harbors and no part of the country was more than forty 
miles from the sea. Through commerce Greece came in touch with 
the Phoenicians and acquired not only wealth, but also the germs of 
her civilization. The Phoenicians had weights and measures, an 
alphabet ajjd knew how to dye cloth and work in metals. The Greeks 
had cereals, wool and timber, which they readily exchanged. 

Climate. The climate was seldom too hot or too cold. It was 
peculiarly suitable for the athletic games that formed an important 
part of Greek life. Never was there a country better adapted to the 
growth of a great civilization. 

Islands and Colonial Settlements. The Greeks at an early period 
spread over the yEgean Islands, the coast of Asia Minor, Southern 
Italy and Sicil}-. Hence these districts must be included in the history 
of Greece. ' ' Wherever there were Hellenes, there was Hellas. ' ' 

Map Study. Find on the map all the divisions and the cities men- 
tioned ? Trace the chief mountain ranges ? 



'y The People. The Greeks (they call themselves Hellenes from 
^* the fabled ancestor of the race, ) if we may take their language 
as a test, belonged to the Aryan family. The earliest inhabitants of 
the country w'ere the Pelasgians, of whom little is known. 

Tribes. The four tribes of Hellenes were the Achaean, the 
^olians, the Dorian and the Ionian. To the Dorian belonged the 
Spartans and to the Ionian the Athenians, the two most important 
of the tribes in historic times. The people not of Hellenic origin 
were called "barbarians," wdiicli at first meant simply " unintelli- 
gible folk," but afterwards " the uncivilized." 

The Greeks, especially the lonians, were quick to assimilate what- 
ever was best in the art, the literature, or the government of other 
people. However, though they borrowed the germs of their civiliza- 
tion, they were intensely original in the development of those germs. 
They possessed the originality of genius. 

Unfortunately the Greeks were too often divided against themselves. 
Bach city had its own government, its own army or fleet. In union 
there would have been strength. When finally they began to 
combine in the Achaean League (240 B. C), it was too late. 



4 Outline Study of 

A Religion. The Greeks worshipped many gods. The chief 
"• deities were Zeus (lyatiii Jupiter), Here (Juno) his wife, Athene 
(Minerva) who sprang from his brain, and Apollo, the sun-god. 
The gods were generally "magnified human beings," gifted with 
greater power and wisdom and endowed with immortality. They 
had the faults and virtues of the Greeks themselves. As the Greeks 
advanced in civilization, their religion became purer and higher. 
Zeus personified power ; Minerva, wisdom ; and Apollo, inspiration. 

Heroes. From the gods were descended the heroes, and from the 
heroes, the Greeks, like all primitive people, often traced their own 
descent. It is a great aid to know something of the myths or legends 
of Greece ; for while they may contain only a fiw grains of truth, 
they tell us what the Greeks thought about their ancestors and their 
deeds; and, as the Greeks believed the legends to be true, they were 
much influenced by them in forming their own characters. 

The legendary period extends from 1550 (?) to 776 B. C. (Read in 
an Encyclopedia or Clare's "History of the World," Vol. 2 Chap. 13, 
Sec. 2, the stories of Cadmus, Pelops, Cecrops, Theseus, and Hercules.) 

Homef s Iliad and Odyssey. The great sources of our knowledge 
concernnig the gods and many of the heroes are the two poems of 
Homer (about 800 B. C.) 

Some modern critics think that these poems should be attributed 
to a number of different authors, but the weight of authority is in 
favor of a single author. The story of the Trojan War and of the 
wanderings of Ul5^sses, as related by Homer, are epics in hexameter 
verse. It is one of the great classics of the world.* 
^ Society in the Heroic Age. The society represented in Homer is 
rude and primitive, but adorned by many of the virtues that we value 
in modern times. It is instructive to compare this early society with 
that of the more refined Periclean Age. , 

V Oracles. Closely connected with the religion of the Greeks 

^ • were the Oracles. In the times portrayed by Homer the gods 

came down and mingled in the affairs of men ; in later times they 

spoke through oracles. The most famous of these was that of Apollo 

at Delphi. Here a priestess, inspired, it was said, by the vapor that 

*A very popular translation of Homer is that of Win. Cullen Bryant, our 
American poet. For the excavations made at Troy, see Dr. Schliemann's great 
book in any large library. 



Universal History 5 

issued from a cleft in the rock, gave the answer of the god to all 
questions. This oracle was appealed to by the whole Hellenic world. 
Its answers, though often given in silly riddles, were as often marked 
by practical wisdom. At last, however, the priests in attendance 
were bribed to give certain answers, and when this was discovered, 
men began to lose faith in the miraculous utterances. For ages, 
however, this oracle tended to unite Greece by a common sentiment. 
The Games. Another unifying influence was found in the national 
games. The most famous of these w^ere the Olympian, celebrated to 
the honor of Zeus every fourth j'ear in the Peloponnesus. There 
were foot races, horse races, chariot races, and many other kinds of 
contests. The victor received no reward except a crown of wild 
olive, but his victory made him a hero through Greece. Poets sang 
his praises, and his native state set up a statue to him. All the cities, 
even those of lower Italy, sent their most famous athletes to contend. 
These games influenced the history of Greece through a period of a 
thousand years. The Olympiad of 776 B. C. is the first historical 
date in Greek history. 

Period of Development, 776-500 B. C. 

/ Forms of Government. Nearly all the cities of Greece devel- 
^* oped the same forms of government. At first in the heroic age 
they were governed by kings. Then in historical times, the power 
of the kings began to decline, and there followed an oligarchic gov- 
ernment or government of a few leading nobles. In general these 
oligarchies misgoverned the people, until in desperation some man of 
ability seized the reins of government by a revolution and made him- 
self a tyrant. (Term used to indicate an unconstitutional ruler, not 
necessarily a despot.) 

The rule of tyrants was often wise. They won popularity by 
beautifying the cities, and b}' showing favor to artists and poets , but 
they rarely held power more than two generations. To the t3-rant 
there generally succeeded a democracy or rule of the people through 
popular assemblies, as in Athens under Pericles.'-^ 

(Read lives of Lycurgus and Solon in Plutarch. See Claie's His- 
tory, Vol. 2. Pages 503-508.) 

*Aristotle held that all democracies must commit excesses and be in turn 
upset b3-some Caesar, who restores order, and completes the Cycle. Is this true 
of Modern times? 



6 Outline Study of 

Sparta. 

•"7 The people were Dorians, and were divided into three classes. 

' • These were (i) the Spartans, descended from the Dorian con- 
querors ; (2) the Periocci, a conquered race, which paid tribute to 
the Spartans, and (3) Helots, who were serfs belonging to the State. 
The last could be put to death without trial, and it is said they were 
sometimes forced to intoxicate themselves for the express purpose of 
giving the Spartan youths an object lesson, by teaching them to abhor 
drunkenness. The Helots worked the land, and brought their masters 
(they were distributed among the land-owners) a certain amount of 
oil, wheat and wine every year. 

Education and Civilization. The ideal of Spartan law-givers was 
to make a race of soldiers. Young children regarded as sickly were 
exposed by the state to die in some mountain glen, while the sturdy 
ones from the age of seven were educated by public officers. There 
were common tables and black broth for all citizens. The Spartans 
despised books, but made the youths recite martial songs, and exer- 
cise the body in athletics. The girls also were trained in athletics. 
Fortitude and patriotism were the chief virtues. "Return with your 
shield or upon it," was the admonition of every Spartan mother. 
Children were allowed to steal their food, but, if detected, were 
punished. 

Under this system Sparta produced a fine race of warriors, but 
contributed nothing to the vi^orld in art, literature, or ethics. 
Nay, the lack of moral fortitude often defeated the results of their 
physicial fortitude ; for the Spartan leaders were notoriously open to 
bribery. The lesson that we learn from Sparta is that the body must 
not be cultivated at the expense of the mind and heart. (Clare's 
History, Vol. 2, Chap. 13, Sec. 7.) 

O The Spartan Lyairgiis, 800 .B C. (?) The system of life just 
^' described was attributed to Lycurgus. He is also said to have 
established the earliest constitution of Sparta. The truth seems to 
be that he reorganized the government and made it stable. There 
were two kings, reigning jointly ; a Senate or Council of Elders, and 
an assembly of freemen. The two kings were the leaders in war and 
the high priests. In conservative Sparta there was no change in 
methods of government except the following : 



Universal History 7 

Ephors. After the time of L,ycurgus, great powers were given to 
five officers of the State called Ephors, elected by the assembly. 
They gradually obtained the chief authority, both the Kings and 
Senate being subordinated. 

Sparta Supreme in Peloponneses {360 B. C. ) Two centuries after 
L,ycurgus, the Spartans by conquest or alliance had become supreme 
in Peloponneses, though the body of citizens was never more than 
10,000. The system of I^ycurgus seemed justified by its success. 

Questions. ' ' What was the Crj-pteia ? What is the derivation of Laconia? 
On what river was Sparta located ? Near what mountains ? Name the two 
kings who ruled Sparta at the same time ? 

Q Athejis. Before the 7th century B. C. the history of Athens 

^ * is obscure, and the city seems to have had little prominence in 
Greece. In this century, however, the office of King became unim- 
portant and the chief authority was vested in an Archon. About 
620 B. C. an oligarchy was established, consisting of nine Archons, 
and a council of Ex-archons called the Areopagus. 

Functions. The chief officer was the Archou Eponymus, who gave 
his name to the year and was president of the State. Next to him 
was the King-iVrchon, who was the religious head of the State ; and 
the third Archon was the Polernarch, who was minister of war, and 
commander of the army. The other six Archons had charge of 
the various departments of justice — with the exception of the court for 
homicide. 

The Areopagics. This venerable assembly had jurisdiction over 
cases of homicide, and elected the Archons. Eater, under Solon, it 
had jurisdiction over the morals of citizens, a censorship. Before 
this assembly the Apostle Paul spoke at Athens. 

Divisions of Society. Society was divided into three classes (i. e. ) 
the Eupatridae, or men of aristocratic birth ; the Geomori,or husband- 
men ; and the Demiurgi, or Artisans.* As yet the governing class 
was the Eupatridae. Hence the lower classes were discontented and 
inclined to rebellion. (Clare's History, Vol. 2, Chap. 13. Sec. 8.) 

1 r\ Education and Civiliation. Education in Athens was far more 
•*-^* liberal than at Sparta. Athletics were not neglected, but 

reading, writing, and music were taught in the schools. To listen to 
*A fourth class, the slaves might be added. These, though very numerous, 

gave no trouble. Their labor gave leisure to the Athenians. 



8 Outline Study of 

the great orators was an education in itself. In art, literature and 
statesmanship Athens became the light of the ancient world. 

The early law-givers, Diaco and Solou, 620-^60 B. C. Out of the 
popular discontent arose the necessity for a change of government. 
The first to codify the laws was Draco. His enactments were so severe 
that it was said they were written in " blood rather than in ink," but 
their severity has doubtless been exaggerated. Naturally, however, 
the new code did not improve the condition of the masses. Solon, 
(Archon in 594 B. C.) belonged to the higher class, but extended the 
power of the masses by substituting a timocracy for the existing 
aristoracy, (i. e.) a government by wealth rather than by birth The 
people were divided into four classes according to the number of 
bushels of wheat they received annually from landed property.' The 
Archons were chosen from the richest class, but as wealth was now 
the passport to this class, wealthy men of lower orders were able to 
obtain office. 

Seriate. Solon established a Senate of 400, which prepared the 
measures to be brought before the assembly. 

ArcJions. These officers were now elected by lot from a number 
of candidates offered by the four tribes.* 

1 1 Ecclesia, or Public Assembly- Solon strengthened this body, 
•^ ■^* which up to this time had no political functions, by giving it 
not only the veto power on all measures, but also the privilege of 
trying all magistrates at the end of the year to see if they had done 
their duty. Thus Solon boasted that he had made a wise division of 
power among the different classes. (Read the life of Solon in Plutarch. 
See Clare's History, Vol. 2. pp. 603, 607, 617, 618.) 

The Debtors. The debtor class, especially the small farmers, were 
in a wretched condition. They were constantly sold into slavery 
(see 2 Kings IV: I). Solon abolished slavery for debt, and relieved 
the farmers of their mortgages. Many other excellent regulations 
are attributed to Solon. Under him Athens seemed to be taking a 
step in the direction of a democracy. 

(For this statement, see Oman's recent History of Greece.) 
The Rise of Tyrants. There was, however, much discontent. The 
moderation of Solon satisfied no one. The lower classes wanted more 
power, the richer classes wanted to give them less. 

*These tribes were the so-called Cultivators, Warriors, Goat-herds, and Arti- 
sans. Such tribes existed in all Ionic communities. 



Universal History 9 

Pisistratus {500 B. C). Finally a tyrant named Pisistratus seized 
the government. He, however, ruled wisely. Scholars and artists 
were invited to Athens, and the tyrant built temples and added to the 
glory of the national festivals. 

This was also a period of extensive colonization. 

Clisthcnes, ^oS B. C. The sons of Pisistratus having been 
driven out with the aid of Sparta, Clisthenes espoused the popular 
cause, and revised the constitution. The ten tribes into which he 
divided the Athenians included all the free inhabitants of Attica and 
some that were not wholly free. 

The Kcclesia now became more powerful than ever before, for its 
decrees were laws, and it received the privilege of electing the archons. 

Ostracism, a curious method of banishing an unpopular leader, 
originated with Clisthenes. This statesman may be called the founder 
of the Athenian democracy. 

(Authorities for this and subsequent period. ' ' The Constitution of the Athe- 
nians," Ms. recently discovered in Egypt and believed to be the work of Aris- 
totle. Also Herodotus, and among the Moderns, Grote and Curtius. ) 

Oue;stions. — Name the four original tribes of Athens ? How many classes 
of citizens ? What were they ? Who wrote the severe code of laws of which it 
was said " They were written in blood instead of ink?" Who were the "Seven 
wise men of Greece ? " 

Greece at War with Persia, 500-479 B. C. 

1 Q In the previous outline of Ancient History (No. i p. i6) it 
*-^» was stated that the most important event in the reign of 
Darius, King of the Medo-Persians, was an unsuccessful attempt to 
conquer Greece. Let us now consider this great war from the Gre- 
cian side. 

Cause of the War. The alleged cause of the war against Greece 
was the assistance given by the Greeks in the destruction of Sardis, 
one of the Persian capitals in Asia Minor. But the real cause was 
the desire of the Persian monarchs to make themselves masters of 
Greece and attach it to their dominions. 

First Expedition, ^po B. C. An expedition sent out under Mardo- 
nius failed to reach Greece. His fleet was wrecked in a hurricane and 
his army cut to pieces by wild Thracian tribes. 

Marathon, ^.go B. C. In 490 another expedition, consisting of 
120,000 men and 600 ships, was sent by Darius to invade Greece. 
At Marathon the invaders were met by 10,000 Athenians and Platae- 



lo Outline Study of 

ans under Miltiades. Sparta failed to send help, but in spite of the 
disparity of numbers, the Greeks were victorious. This was one of 
the " Fifteen decisive battles of the world." (See Creasy 's work and 
compare Arbela, 331 B. C.) It decided that Greece, instead of 
becoming a slave to Kastern despotism, was to work out its own free 
civilisation. It gave the Greeks confidence in themselves and nerved 
them for future victories. By this battle, therefore, the world was a 
great gainer. 

Tlie Faiiwiis Rivals. The two leading statesmen of Athens at this 
epoch were Themistocles and Aristides. Aristides, known as "the 
Just," was a man of perfect integrity, but of too conservative a spirit. 
Themistocles was a far-seeing statesman, a man of genius, but he was 
selfish and not thoroughly honest. The policy of Aristides was to 
confine Athens to the land. Themistocles believed his city must 
become a naval power, and he urged the creation of a navy. Finally 
Aristides was ostracised, and the navy was built. The result proved 
the policy of Themistocles to be the wiser. (See Clare's History, 
Vol. 2, Chap. 13, Sec. 10.) 

Xerxes, ^80 B. C. Darius was succeeded by his son Xerxes, 
who determined to avenge the defeat at Marathon. Every 
portion of the Persian Empire furnished its quota of troops, and an 
immense navy was collected. Forty-six nations, we are told, marched 
across the Hellespont under the standards of the king. The land 
and naval force amounted at the lowest estimate to 900,000 men, 
and at the highest to 2,317,000. The attempt to feed this host im- 
poverished many cities. 

ThermoplycE, ^80 B. C. At Thermoplyse the Spartan lyconidas 
with 300 Spartans and 6,000 allies withstood the whole Persian army 
until he was surrounded and crushed by numbers. It is one of the 
famous battles of the world. (See " Fifteen Decisive Battles of the 
World" by Creasy and Clare's History, Vol. 2, pp. 626-8.) 

Salamis, ^80 B. C. Athens was then occupied by the enemy and 
burned, but the Athenians had taken refuge on board their ships. At 
Salamis, Themistocles, now joined by the exile Aristides, defeated 
the fleet of Xerxes, while the Persian monarch himself, from a lofty 
cliff, looked down upon the ruin. 

This great victory practically ended the Persian invasion, and great 
was the rejoicing throughout Greece. Immense offerings of gold and 
silver were vowed to the gods. 



Universal History ii 

See the story in Herodotus, a conteinporar)'. Find the battle fields on the 
map? Compare the defeat of the Spanish Armada in Elizabeth's time? 

Athens Supreme in Greece, 479-431 B, C. 

Confederacy of Dclos, ^^7 B. C. To protect Greece and the 
^gean cities and islands from the Persians, Athens under 
the leadership of Aristides, formed the confederacy of Delos. Some 
of the cities contributed ships ; others, money. The annual assess- 
ments were made by Aristides. At first the contributions were de- 
posited in a common treasury at the isle of Delos ; but later in the 
treasury of Athens. As Athens controlled this fund she became 
more and more powerful. When the island of Naxos tried to retire 
from the Confederacy^ Athens promptly compelled it to remain. Thtis 
the other members of the Confederacy^ found themselves the vassals 
of Athens. The bond, at first voluntar}', had become compulsory. 
Sparta was intensely jealous, but not strong enough as yet to interfere. 

I C Pcyiclean Age, ^59-^j/ B. C. Athens now entered upon one of 
* -^ • the most brilliant periods the world has ever seen. This period 
took its name from the great Athenian statesman, Pericles. He fos- 
tered the growth of her naval power ; he encouraged art ; he built the 
" long walls " of Athens, and the great temple of the Parthenon on 
the Acropolis. ^-^ Famous poets and orators began to flourish. The 
treasure, collected from the Confederacy, now amounted to ten million 
dollars, and a portion of it was used to beautify Athens. The city 
reached the acme of its g■lor5^ 

Pericles and the People. Further changes were made in the courts 
of justice and other public ofiace3, by which the power of the dem- 
ocracy was increased. Soldiers and members of the assembly were 
paid for their services, the people were flattered by the distribution 
of free tickets to the theatres. Pericles boasted that no foreign power 
in the world could withstand the Athenian navy. This was trtie as 
long as Pericles lived. 

Peloponnesian War, 431-404 B. C. 

1 / The cause of the war was the jealousj^ of Sparta aroused by the 

^» growth of Athens. The occasion of the breaking out of 

hostilities was the interference of Athens with the allies of Sparta. 

*In this temple was the Statue of Athene, 47 feet in height. It was made by 
Phidias of ivory and gold. The golden robes were valued at 150,000. 



12 Outline Study of 

Athens had the better navy ; Sparta had the better army. 

Sparta invades Attica. In 431 B. C. Sparta sent an army into 
Attica. Pericles, after gathering all the people and their flocks with- 
in the long walls, shut the gates of the cities, and sent out naval expe- 
ditions to harass the coast of Peloponnesus. As a result of the lack 
of sanitation, the plague raged in Athens and carrier! off one fourth of 
the citizens. Thuc3'dides, who recovered from this pest, has left us 
a minute description of it. Its most illustrious victim was Pericles 
himself, who died in 429 B. C* 

The Demagogues. After the death of Pericles, the war went on 
with varying success. But there were no more wise statesmen in 
Athens. Instead there arose a number of demagogues, who won 
popularity by flattering the baser elements of the assembl}^, which 
now became a noisy and often vindictive mob. The worst of these 
demagogues was Cleon, a tanner, who often excited the assembl}' to 
pass most unwise measures. Pericles' policy of making every citizen 
a politician was working badly, now that thei'e was no good man at 
the helm. Moreover, Athens had treated the members of the Confed- 
eracy as vassals rather than as free allies ; so that they had no love 
for her and were generally ready to revolt. It is wiser to found an 
empire on the good will of the governed than on force. Could Athens, 
however, have pursued another policy ? 

(The great contemporary authority is Thucydides.) 

1 'n Alcibiades. This famous man now rose to prominence. He 
* ' • was thoroughly reckless and unprincipled but so brilliant as a 
speaker and so handsome that he became the petted darling of the 
Athenians. 

Sicilian Expedition, 41 2-^1 j, B. C. While a nominal armistice 
was existing between Athens and Sparta, Alcibiades persuaded the 
Athenians to fit out an immense expedition against Syracuse. * ' All 
Athens sailed out of the Piraeus (the chief harbor of the city) never 
again to return." Never before had such an armament left a 
Grecian port. There were in all over 200 triremes, 500 transports, 
and 6,000 troops. Through ill-fortune and the incompetency of the 
commanders, the whole expedition ended in complete failure and 
disaster. It was the death knell of Athens' political power. Creasy 
*When he was dying, some one praised his many great deeds, but he roused 
himself to say : "My real pride is that no Athenian ever wore mourning 
through me." 



Universal History 13 

regards the struggle before Syracuse as one of the ' ' Fifteen decisive 
battles of the world." 

yEgos-Potamos, 40^, B. C. Finally the Athenian dependencies 
revolted in large numbers, and at ^gos-Potamos on the Helles- 
pont, the Spartans, under Lysander, with the aid of Persia, captured 
the whole Athenian fleet. "That night," Xenophon tell us, "no 
man slept at Athens. ' ' The city itself, blockaded by land and sea, 
soon fell into the hands of the allies. The ' ' long walls ' ' were de- 
stroyed, and the Peloponnesian War was at an end. (Clare's His- 
tory, Vol. 2, pp. 656-675.) 

Sparta Supreme, 404-361 B. C. 

1 O After ^gos-Potamos, Sparta held the leadership of Greece for 
-I ^« a generation ; but her overbearing conduct aroused the indig- 
nation of Greece. Especially was this the case when, by the peace 
of Antalcidas (387), Sparta made concessions to Artaxerxes, King 
of Persia, and allowed him to dictate the policy of the Grecian states. 
Thebes. Thebes now came to the front under her famous general 
Epaminondas, the greatest commander of his day. At the battle of 
Eeuctra (371) he crushed the Spartan army and " made all Greece 
free." The supremacy of Thebes, however, lasted only during the 
life time of Epaminondas. He fell at the battle of Mantinea (362). 
Note. When the enemies of Epaminondas once had him elected to the office 
of public scavenger, he declared : " If the office will not reflect honor on me, I 
will reflect honor on it." 

Macedonian Period, 338-146 B.C. 

Exhausted Greece fell an easy victim to a new and vigorous power 
from the north. This was Madeconia, of which country Philip was 
king. This famoas monarch now began to interfere in the affairs 
of Greece. The Greeks had sadly degenerated ; but Desmosthenes, 
the great orator, by his bimiing addresses, persuaded the Athenians 
to take some measure of defense. At Chacronea, in Boeotia (338, 
B. C), however, Philip defeated the Athenians and Thebans, and 
made himself virtually master of Greece. 

(Read the " Philippics " of Demosthenes and his life in Plutarch. 
See Clare's History, Vol. 2, pp. 704-721.) 

Alexander the Great. As Philip was about to invade Persia, 
he was assassinated, and his son Alexander succeeded him. 
After asserting his power in Greece, Alexander marched on that 



14 Outlme Shidy of ■ 

victorious expedition through the Persian empire into India which 
has made his name so famous. Man}' of his generals were Greeks 
and his army was largely composed of Greek hoplites. Thus it was 
not without pride that Greece watched his victorious career. At 
Issus and Arbela (331) the Persians were defeated, and Alexander 
found himself at the head of the greatest empire the world had ever 
seen. 

Dcxllne and Fall of G?rccc, jj8-i^6, B. C. After the division of 
Alexander's empire, Macedonia continued to claim supremacy over 
Greece, but amid the many revolts, it proved a difficult task. 

The Leagues. The study of the political history of Greece during 
this period is interesting. Because of their resistance to Macedonia, 
some of the Greek states made a brilliant attempt at a federal union. 
This was shown in the formation of the Achseon and Actolian 
leagues, the former of which bears some resemblance to our American 
federal union. The principle of representation, however, was not- 
known to the ancient world. 

Finally in 146 B.C. , Rome which was making herself mistress of the 
world, absorbed Greece and made it a Roman province.* By her 
arts and sciences, however, Greece, it has been truly said, made a 
conquest of her conqueror. 

Greek Civilization. 

While Rome has handed down to us models of law and 
government, the great contribution of Greece to the world's 
civilization was in art and letters. No nation has ever possessed a 
more exquisite sense of beauty than the Greeks. With them beauty 
was an object of worship. Clearness of outline and perfect proportion 
mark all their creations in art and literature. ' ' Nothing in excess," 
was their motto. (Clare's Histor}-, Vol. 2, pp. 741-753.) 

Architecture. The oldest form of Greek architecture is the Pelas- 
gian, remains of which are found in the excavations at Mycenae. 
(See Schliemann's work.) 

The orders of architecture in the Greek temples are three : The 
Doric, which is severe an J simple ; the Ionic, which is more graceful ; 

*Macedonia had been conquered, and Greece was lienceforth controlled by 
the governor of that province. 

NoTK. (For good account of these leagues, see Woodrow Wilson's "The 
State" and Freeman's works. ) 



Universal History 15 

and the Corinthian, which is the most ornamental of all. They are dis- 
tinguished chiefly by the form of the capital. The most famous tem- 
ples were that of Delphi, the Parthenon at Athens, that of Diana at 
Ephesus, and the Mausoleum at Halicarnassus. The two last were 
placed among the " seven wonders of the world." A portion of the 
frieze of the Parthenon may be seen in the British museum , 

Sculpture and Paintivg. In sculpture, the Greeks delighted 
to represent not only the victors in the games, but also their 
gods and heroes. Only a few names of artists among a multitude 
can be mentioned. The most famous in delineating the form, both 
human and divine, was perhaps Phidias in the age of Pericles. Later 
came Praxiteles, who made the Chidian Aphrodite, and Charos, who 
made the Colossus of Rhodes. This Colossus was one of the " seven 
wonders." Among the most famous of the remains of Greek sculp- 
ture are the Venus of Milo at Paris, and the Venus de Medici at 
Florence. These are priceless models for all artists. 

Painting. Of Greek painting v^^e have no remains except some 
recently discovered portraits and the decorations on vases and w.alls. 
But there were many famous works of which we have descriptions. 
The most distinguished names are those of Zeuxis, Parrhasius, and 
Apelles. The last was an artist attached to the court of Alexander. 

Literature. It is a high tribute to the literature of the Greeks 
to say that it is not inferior to their sculpture. It was the 
most valuable literature produced b}^ the ancient world ; some scholars 
even maintain its superiority to that of the modern world. To appre- 
ciate the value of this literature, as of any literature, the works of 
the authors themselves must be read. 

The general division of the literature is into three periods: (i) 
The period before 475 B. C; (2) the Periclean or Golden Age, 475- 
300 B. C; (3) the Alexandrine, 300 to Roman Conquest 146 B. C. 

Epic and Lyric Poetry. In period i belong Homer and Hesiod, 
who were both epic poets. Among the lyric poets were Alcasus 
and Sappho. The latter was called by Plato " the tenth muse." 
Only fragments of these lyric poets remain. 

D)-ama. ' Period 2 was a period of national greatness at Athens. 
It was then the drama flourished as never before. Of the dramatists 



i6 Universal History 

the most famous were Aeschylus, Sophocles, Euripides, and Aristo- 
phanes. Many of their works have come down to us. In this 
period, also, flourished the phildsophers, Socrates, Plato, and Aristotle. 
Aristotle's philosophy has controlled the thinking world for two thous- 
and years. Socrates b}- his teaching and his tragic death has not yet 
ceased to have a profound influence upon the history of mankind. 
His philosophy is almost Christian in its purity and elevation. He 
left no works, but an exposition of his doctrines may be found in 
Plato and Xenophon, 

Q ^ Stoics and Epicureans. Partly to period 2 and partly to 
Z-d^, period 3 belong Zeno, the founder of the Stoics; and 
Epicurus, founder of the Epicureans. 

The Stoics taught men to bear joy and pain with equanimity. In 
morals their precept was : Be virtuous because it is your dut}^ 

The Epicureans taught that pleasure is the object of life, but true 
pleasure is to be obtained only through virtue. Hence their precept 
was : Be virtuous that you may be truly happy. The followers of 
Epicurus often abused his precept by forgetting virtue. 

To History in period 2 belong al.'-o the great historians, Herod- 
otus, Thucydides and Xenophon. Reference to their works has al- 
ready been made. 

zt Oratory, Themistocles and Pericles were both distinguished 
'^ ''• in oratory, and owed their influence over the people to this 
gift. But the most famous of all the orators — perhaps the most fa- 
mous of all time — was Demosthenes, who tried to save Gieece in the 
time of Philip. Many of his orations survive. 

As the Greeks were fond of the drama and of orator}^, these forms 
of litcratin-e were highly developed among them. They served as 
vehicles of education. It has been often declared that at Athens, in 
the best days of the republic, the general average of intelligence was 
superior to that of any modern nation. 

Period 3. Alexandrine, so called because after the division of 
Alexander's empire the city of Alexandria, which he had founded in 
Egypt, became the nucleus of Greek culture and learning. It was 
a period of decline, howe\'er. Skepticism was taking the place of 
the old faith, and no works of real originality were produced. 



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